Thematic inspection of police response to drug harm reduction

142. Police Scotland’s operational delivery of its drug harm reduction approach encompasses a broad range of activities. It requires effective partnership working and planning, as well as information sharing, targeted intervention, resourcing and collaboration across local and specialist policing.

143. In this section, we look at the partnership structure in local divisions and local authority areas and how operational policing works within that to deliver on drug harm reduction strategies. We describe the different roles of the various police teams and units involved in the process, including partnership teams, local policing, and those involved in the disruption of the import and supply of drugs.

Alcohol and Drug Partnerships

144. Effective partnership working is crucial if Police Scotland is to achieve its aims and objectives, and the service has a statutory duty to engage with ADPs (see Alcohol and Drugs Partnership: delivery framework published in 2019).^[8] These multi-disciplinary, non-statutory bodies are tasked with the strategic oversight, planning and commissioning of services designed to prevent and reduce harm associated with alcohol and drug use. They foster co-operation among stakeholders such as health services, local authorities, justice partners, housing and education sectors, and third sector organisations delivering treatment and intervention services.

145. Achieving national and local objectives depends on the collaboration of these partner bodies and an integrated approach that supports holistic, person-centred interventions that address the complex needs of individuals and communities.

146. Local drug harm reduction efforts are primarily co-ordinated through ADPs and associated sub-groups, which guide strategic priorities aligned with the national mission. Police Scotland senior officers play a key role within these structures, contributing to multi-agency approaches and initiatives.

147. We also found that third sector organisations play an essential role in the delivery of drug harm reduction services. However, they often face unstable, short-term funding arrangements that hinder long-term planning and collaboration. Competitive funding environments and restrictive grant conditions can limit innovation and sustainability, so investment is crucial if these organisations are to build trust and provide consistent support to people with lived experience.

148. During our inspection, we engaged with key representatives from a range of ADPs. Their depth of expertise, strong commitment and drive were commendable. We observed a wide range of effective, innovative and targeted initiatives and interventions taking place across the country to reduce drug-related harm (many of which we discuss later in this report).

149. In some regions, local policing divisions cover more than one local authority area, resulting in the presence of up to three ADPs within the same operational footprint. We heard that this structure can be demanding and resource-intensive, placing considerable pressure on senior officers to maintain engagement and sustain meaningful involvement across the ADPs.

150. There is a national ADP forum in place, which provides an opportunity for ADP members to meet to discuss national issues and potential solutions. However, we found that it has not convened regularly since its inception. We were advised that Police Scotland does not currently participate directly in the forum’s activities.

151. Police Scotland acknowledged that there is no formal mechanism to assess the effectiveness of its involvement in ADPs, with any evaluation being project specific. However, feedback from several partner organisations indicated that police engagement is both recognised and valued by partners, and reflects a strong commitment to collaborative efforts in addressing drug-related harms.

152. The police divisions we visited were well embedded within ADPs and their associated activities. They were, for the most part, working closely and effectively with a broad range of partner agencies, including several third sector organisations. While approaches vary, there is a shared understanding of individual needs in relation to drug harm reduction. Under ADP structures, partners have shared responsibility and accountability for progress at a local level, and all ADPs are required to publish annual reports on what has been delivered and achieved.

153. These reports generally focus on the activities of local authority HSCPs as well as third sector projects and, as such, make limited reference to policing activity. This creates a gap in the evaluation of policing’s participation, contributions and potential impact in this area.

154. In order for Police Scotland to understand the value of its involvement in ADPs, and the resource allocated to this, it is important for them to evaluate their contribution to ADPs to fully consider the impact and effectiveness of this.

155. In terms of local policing structure and engagement with ADPs, each division has a dedicated partnership superintendent who focuses on prevention, partnership working and community wellbeing. Their role involves engagement with the aforementioned partners, and supervising a team of officers whose roles include liaison and involvement with the various partnership programmes and projects.

156. These officers are based in Prevention, Intervention and Partnerships (PIP) teams, which are dedicated to strengthening collaborative partnerships, with a focus on reducing vulnerability and preventing harm. In the context of drug harm reduction, PIP teams play an important role in safeguarding communities.

157. We found the structure of PIP teams in the areas we visited to be streamlined and well integrated within each division. This was underpinned by strong collaboration with local partners and a whole-systems approach to reducing drug-related harm. However, there were some differences in the structure of PIP teams across the areas visited.

158. While Edinburgh and Glasgow were each aligned with a single local authority, Tayside division covers three. To ensure equal access to prevention and intervention support, the Tayside PIP team is embedded within all three local authority areas; an approach that was reported to be effective.

159. Partnership superintendents come together in a national group to discuss and share drug harm-related issues, as well as a number of other subjects. This is largely organic and driven by the membership, rather than by a specific division. We were told that, while members would take information from this forum and cascade it within their own divisions, this was largely ad hoc. It appeared that the collective output of this group was not being formally captured and therefore had limited impact on contributing to consistent national approaches to address drug harms.

160. However, we also found particularly strong examples of effective collaboration and information sharing between partners in the ADP areas we visited. This included structures and arrangements that had been established to address the issue of drug use deaths and NFOs – with a notable level of investment in collaborative projects, integrated services and information-sharing forums. We look at these forums in more detail in our section on NFO groups.

161. Local policing, including partnership teams, have played an important role within these groups, especially in sharing information and intelligence on potential threats and risks associated with criminality, and when particularly harmful and toxic drugs emerge in specific locations.

ADP funding and support

162. Funding provided to ADPs has declined over several years, with a significant reduction in 2016/17 when core funding fell by over 20% to £53.8 million, down from £69.2 million in the preceding two years. However, investment began to recover from 2018/19, reaching £76.8 million by 2020/21. In April 2021, funding levels returned to approximately what they had been six years earlier.

163. Beyond core ADP funding, the Scottish Government introduced additional financial support from 2018/19 onwards. This included £2 million for a challenge fund aimed at preventing homelessness and £1 million for advocacy services and innovative recovery projects. From 2021/22, ADPs have received an extra £20 million annually for five years, reflecting a renewed commitment to tackling drug and alcohol harms.

164. The Scottish Government has since strengthened its approach by establishing a dedicated drug policy division, alongside enhanced support for ADPs through regular regional engagement. In October 2019, it outlined key actions, milestones, and timelines to implement its national strategy.

Figure 4: Key developments in Scotland’s national drug strategy

165. More recently, Scottish Government has supported the RADAR drug surveillance system operated by PHS. The system consists of information and intelligence from various public bodies and organisations, with regular alerts highlighting specific drug threats and risks. These are shared widely across Scotland among organisations, projects and teams working with drug users.

166. Scottish Government has also made £100 million available to support residential rehabilitation from 2021 to 2026, citing commitments to increase residential rehabilitation capacity to 650 beds by 2026 and to ensure that, by the end of that year, at least 1000 people are publicly funded to go to rehab each year thereafter.

167. We have referred to the critical importance of statutory and third sector organisations in responding to the challenge of Scotland’s drug problem, but a range of independent organisations take on a similarly crucial role in influencing policy and planning for services, providing direct support and guidance for individuals, their families and communities.

168. The SDF and the Scottish Recovery Consortium, are just two such examples.

169. The SDF is a membership-led charity that aims to improve Scotland’s approach to drug-related issues through ‘compassionate, inclusive, evidence-informed policy and practice. The work of the forum is informed by research, good practice and the real-life experiences of people affected by drug use. This provides the basis for the forum’s advocacy approach and the work undertaken to ensure that the experiences and perspectives of people experiencing drug-related harms are the focus of the policy and practice developments that affect them.

170. The SDF has supported ADPs to evaluate a range of issues, including MAT standards, people’s experience of accessing drug and alcohol services, and injecting equipment provision. This has helped improve an understanding of drug issues, drug policy and related practice through direct engagement with services and service users.

171. The Scottish Recovery Consortium supports, represents and connects recovery across Scotland. This is achieved by working with recovery in all its forms – from grassroots to government, and from individuals to international organisations. The consortium operates nationally across Scotland to develop and provide a variety of offerings including events, training, representation and community development. It adopts a rights-based approach and believes in collaborative working and putting people with lived and living experience at the centre. It can also provide ADPs with learning inputs, training and support on how best to engage people with lived experience.

Near-fatal overdose and naloxone

172. An NFO is defined as a life-threatening incident from which a person survives only due to timely intervention and, in many cases, the administration of naloxone. NFOs are a good indicator that someone is at risk of going on to experience a fatal overdose, so these individuals need to be a priority for intervention, follow up and additional support. Collaboration, information sharing and intervention (such as outreach work) are crucial to enable partners to intervene at the right time.

173. In February 2022, Police Scotland made the decision to approve a national rollout of naloxone, an emergency intra-nasal spray which counters the effects of overdose from opioids such as heroin. This followed an independent evaluation by academics at Edinburgh Napier University of a test of change in the Dundee, Falkirk, Glasgow, Stirling and Caithness areas in 2021.

174. Police Scotland’s national rollout of naloxone began on International Overdose Awareness Day in August 2022, supported by the Scottish Government, as well as a range of other key stakeholders. The national rollout was officially completed in August 2023, following an extensive police training programme, and naloxone is now part of standard issue kit for over 12,500 officers up to and including the rank of police inspector.

175. We learned that frontline police officers do not currently issue ‘take-home’ naloxone. Custody healthcare staff are able to provide take-home naloxone, but this service is only available in custody centres with a 24/7 healthcare provision. We understand work is ongoing, including through discussion with the SDF, to expand access across more custody centres.

176. Detailed guidance for officers on the use of naloxone is available within the Police Scotland Naloxone Carriage and Administration guidance document. We found the guidance to be clear, well laid out and accessible for officers as required. Trained officers also undertake an annual refresher session during their Operational Safety Training recertification.

177. The Policing Together SHPT has oversight of all naloxone-related matters through a dedicated naloxone co-ordination unit and naloxone intranet site. This provides officers with ready access to relevant information, and reinforces the service’s commitment to saving lives.

178. We found that almost all officers that we spoke with during our inspection endorsed the introduction of naloxone as a lifesaving tool. They spoke very positively about the impact naloxone has had on shifting culture within policing towards a more health-focused, harm reduction approach.

179. Police Scotland monitors the number of times naloxone is administered by officers. Data provided to us shows that, up to the beginning of December, there have been 960 administrations.

180. Police Scotland shares published data on naloxone administration annually with Scottish Government to coincide with International Overdose Awareness Day. Data is also shared with partners in public health and third sector organisations to support the identification of new and emerging drug trends and clusters, and to enable partners and service providers to respond accordingly.

181. We heard from police officers and healthcare professionals that, due to the emergence of new, highly potent substances (as well as polydrug use), the number of naloxone doses required to reverse the effects of an overdose has increased considerably over time. We were told that some individuals require multiple doses of naloxone to counteract the effect of the drugs taken. As stated previously in this report, the threats posed by these substances and the way in which they are being used, is related to the high level of drug deaths.

182. We learned that, when officers administer naloxone at the scene of an NFO, they complete a naloxone administration report capturing key details such as:

• location, date and time
• patient state and presence of drug paraphernalia
• number of naloxone doses given
• whether the SAS responded, and if hospital conveyance occurred

183. Completed forms are shared with the SHPT and the officer’s local police division to inform future health interventions and planning.

184. Police Scotland’s decision to introduce the carriage and administration of naloxone by officers on a national basis has been very well received by partner organisations. We heard positive comments from third sector partners and projects and, perhaps most importantly, from people with lived experience. There is no doubt that, as a result, police officers have saved lives and will continue to do so through this critical intervention.

Near-fatal overdose groups

185. As previously noted, we found strong examples of effective collaboration and information sharing between partners to address the issue of drug use deaths and NFOs in the ADP areas we visited. Of particular note, were the near-fatal overdose groups that had been established in these areas. Often referred to as NFO groups, these are multi-agency information-sharing forums put in place to bring partners together to share information and intelligence on new and emerging drug threats and risks, to enable a swift response.

186. The structure and membership of these groups varied slightly across the three areas, in part because the groups have formed fairly organically, with membership based mostly on pre-existing partnership working relationships in each area. The configuration of the groups, and frequency of meetings, was reflective of the needs of the respective areas and the model of service delivery in place within them. For example, many of the frontline services in the Greater Glasgow area were led by statutory services, particularly from the HSCP. However, the ADP in Tayside had invested heavily in third sector organisations to deliver services, though statutory services also played a crucial role (as would be expected). Edinburgh had a relative balance of both statutory and third sector service provision. Nevertheless, all of these models were very effective.

187. The NFO groups operated with the most up to date information that was available to them at the time. This information was gathered regularly from several sources including RADAR, NFO reports from SAS, incident reports from local policing, updates from services working directly with drug users, and sanitised intelligence reports from specialist policing on localised drug threats and risks.

188. While the groups operated slightly differently, they all met frequently in order to be as responsive as possible to the information and intelligence received, so that services could be deployed swiftly to locate a person at risk or to share relevant information with frontline staff (or, at times, drug users) regarding contaminated batches of drugs in a specific location – all in an effort to reduce the risk of NFO or death.

189. The quality of the information gathered and shared, and how it was acted upon, was clearly the main priority for NFO groups. As such, we found them, and their respective membership, to be knowledgeable, experienced and highly committed to respond to the information received as swiftly as possible, to provide support and intervention to people most at risk of an NFO.

190. We heard about staff from outreach services being deployed immediately following an NFO group meeting. At other times, the approach was more about services providing information on safer drug use in a manner that was suited to the individual.

191. While all of the various strategies, services, and interventions outlined in this report contribute effectively to reducing drug-related harms, the almost real-time responsiveness of the NFO group model – and the collaborative efforts of its membership – is a particularly strong approach and one that merits continuous investment. It was particularly positive to note the role policing played within these groups and the quality of the partnership working displayed.

Prevention and intervention

192. Local police divisions and police partnership teams play an integral role in the preventative approaches introduced in some areas to divert people from drug-related harms through early intervention.

193. We observed what we considered to be a gradual but concerted shift from the traditional partnership approaches taken by policing to a more integrated and collaborative stance. Of particular note was the level of police involvement we saw in partnership projects in the three divisional areas we visited, and heard about during interviews with policing teams in other regions.

194. We identified that a range of funding models had been put in place to support the inclusion of police officers in several projects. This included direct funding, and part funding, from ADPs and local authorities, as well as targeted MAT standard funding being used to support the involvement of officers from partnership teams in projects and services for people at the greatest risk of drug harm.

195. The following provides an outline of some of the collaborative projects and services we observed and learned about. This also includes examples of joint events and activities aimed at reducing drug-related harm.

• North East Scotland – the division has two externally funded harm reduction posts. One to cover Aberdeen City and the other Aberdeenshire. These posts are supported through MAT standards funding and by the ADP. The post holders co-ordinate assertive outreach, develop safety plans, and act as single points of contact for drug and alcohol services. Police officers are also working with housing officers to carry out joint visits to tackle cuckooing,^[9] helping protect vulnerable individuals from exploitation.
• Tayside – officers have delivered training sessions with, and to, partners. These aim to reduce the stigma around drug use, helping to improve understanding and support across services. While not in externally funded posts, local policing officers and partnership teams have formed effective working relationships with third sector agencies involved in the city centre-based injecting equipment provision IEP^[10] programme, and the support services that are aligned to it.
• Edinburgh City – the division offers a broad range of holistic initiatives aimed at tackling drug-related harm through early intervention and prevention approaches, with projects such as the VOW, SideStep, the Pilton Project (Clear, Hold, Build), and the Fearless Partnership. These focus on supporting individuals and improving areas affected by drug-related anti-social behaviour. For example, the VOW has funded police officers in the project who work closely with third sector colleagues and peer support workers with lived experience of drug use.
• Greater Glasgow – the police division had a key role in developing the safer drugs consumption facility. The police partnership team has also collaborated with the ADP and HSCP to integrate police officers into the Positive Outcomes Project (POP), which provides harm reduction advice to break cycles of drug use and offending behaviour. The project undertakes outreach work in the community and engages with people detained in police custody through the support of Sacro.
• Highland and Islands – the division delivered county lines awareness training aimed at partners in the criminal justice system (with local officers in attendance). A dedicated officer, funded by Inverness ADP, supports assertive outreach for individuals at high risk of drug harm. Police also collaborate with housing associations on ‘Fit Homes,’ which is technology-enabled housing for people leaving prison who are at risk of homelessness and substance use.

196. Partners spoke very positively of the value of having serving police officers based in these projects. Some stated that it has significantly improved information sharing, others highlighted that it has improved the relationships that local policing has with services and people using substances.

197. We consider the principle of funded police officer involvement in these projects to be very positive and, from what we have seen, highly beneficial. However, the variance in local strategies, plans and funding models has meant that there is little consistency in what is being delivered across the country. There is also limited national oversight and evaluation of the work being undertaken, to identify and share learning across police divisions where relevant.

198. We would anticipate that it would be important to Police Scotland to understand how effective the allocation of police resources to the aforementioned projects and services has been. In order to consider the value of this investment, Police Scotland should undertake an assessment of this as outlined in the following recommendation.

Specialist policing

199. Specialist policing teams are central to Police Scotland’s response to drug-related harm, contributing to the disruption of illicit drug supply chains, reducing the social impact of drug use, and supporting prevention and harm reduction initiatives. Through collaboration with local policing teams and external partners, specialist units ensure that drug harm reduction efforts are comprehensive, co-ordinated, and effective.

200. The Operation ERSO Drug Harm Intelligence Team (DHIT) is a national resource located within the Specialist Crime Division (SCD). Initially created in 2021 under the Drug Harm Tactical Taskforce, the DHIT was formed in February 2024 in response to the high number of drug-related deaths across Scotland and the risks presented to communities by emerging high-harm drugs.

201. The DHIT has its own terms of reference (reportedly due for review) but takes its overall strategic direction from Police Scotland’s Drug Strategy Board, of which it is an active participant. It also aligns itself with the Scottish Government’s national mission on drug deaths.

202. The team consists of a detective inspector (non-dedicated), detective sergeant (non-dedicated) and two detective constables from the National Intelligence Bureau (NIB), supported by staff from the Analysis and Performance Unit (APU) and NIB support unit.

203. We heard that operation ERSO draws together key internal stakeholders from the Policing Together SHPT, APU and the STOP unit, to co-ordinate the policing response to county lines.

204. Members of the DHIT we spoke to during our inspection were experienced and knowledgeable on high-harm drugs and on new and emerging threats facing the communities of Scotland as a result of the illicit drugs market. They demonstrated a clear commitment to improving the organisational approach and response. There is a collective understanding that their work aligns with broader harm reduction strategies and an acknowledgement that police cannot enforce their way out of the myriad problems facing the country as a result of drug use.

205. The DHIT produces detailed and informative weekly and monthly intelligence bulletins that contain an overview of drug-related deaths and NFOs, including clusters thereof, along with an intelligence picture per local division focusing on the highest harm drugs, intelligence gaps, and emerging risks and trends.

206. These bulletins are cascaded to divisions through divisional commanders and divisional intelligence managers, offering the opportunity to identify enforcement, prevention and intervention opportunities at local level. Further intelligence bulletins are shared on an ad hoc basis for specific significant threats and harms that arise (e.g., the circulation of counterfeit Oxycodone tablets by drug gangs).

207. Details of all NFO and drug-related deaths are compiled by the DHIT on a Power BI dashboard^[11] and shared with local divisions. Nationally, the team gathers and analyses intelligence to identify major suppliers and trafficking routes, guiding targeted enforcement aimed at disrupting supply (we refer to this later in the report).

208. Despite these efforts, awareness of the DHIT or Operation ERSO among officers (outwith specific roles) was limited and intelligence bulletins were not regularly consumed, particularly by operational officers. A recent assessment by the DHIT DS identified that the bulletins were not reaching local area commander (LAC) level, so were less effective in driving daily business at a local level. As a result, the distribution list was expanded to include LACs.

209. The DHIT has well-established partnerships, with strong collaboration and effective intelligence-sharing frameworks in place. It recognises the benefits of a public health approach and sharing intelligence with statutory and non-statutory partners – ensuring any sensitive information is suitably redacted. In general, partner organisations were very complimentary of the working relationship they had with the DHIT and the information it provided.

210. The SAS shares details of all NFOs with the DHIT daily. We were informed that the DHIT contributes to the quarterly RADAR reports and engages in ad hoc sharing of intelligence with RADAR and other partners on a case-by-case basis, to help flag emerging risks, trends and hotspots across regions.

211. We learned that the DHIT has established an internal ‘trigger plan’ guidance document, which is used to respond to clusters of NFO or drug-related deaths – helping to draw together a swift multi-agency response. It provided us with brief illustrative example of the trigger plan in operation, as follows:

• J Division experienced eight NFOs in as many days, which was out of the ordinary. All were similar, with the needle being found either in the body or nearby, indicating the presence of super-strength drugs (potentially nitazenes).
• Trigger plan initiated by the DHIT. This initially involved co-ordination, information sharing and liaison with local Criminal Investigation Department (CID) to generate intelligence to provide enforcement opportunities and community interventions.
• DHIT engaged SHPT and partners to get messaging out to communities and encourage the use of WEDINOS (the UK’s only national drug-testing service run by Public Health Wales).
• DHIT fast tracked drugs and mobile phones for testing and analysis and issued intelligence bulletins on the risk from nitazenes.
• Intelligence shared with health and community partners in the Local Early Warning System (LEWS), allowing timely alerts to services and the public.
• Due to spikes in NFOs observed in other areas, a Problem Assessment Group (PAG) was created by the local public health team, where intelligence was discussed, assessed and actioned.
• Incident Management Team stood up by PHS involving all health board leads.
• Incident managed and operations stood down when situation deemed under control.

212. This is a strong example of a real-time, police-led partnership response where information sharing reduced further harm caused by a particularly toxic substance.

213. We also noted that the SHPT has produced national guidance on the response to clusters of drug-related harms, which supplements the trigger plan and Public Health Scotland guidance but, like the drugs strategy, this remains in draft format.

214. As we heard consistently throughout the inspection, navigating data protection laws, system integration, and data automation can be a barrier to reducing drug-related harm. This chimes with the narrative within Changing Lives report which states:

“Data sharing must cease to be a barrier to the effective delivery of services.”

215. To that end, we learned that the DHIT is working in partnership with PHS, the SPA and COPFS to introduce an AI databelt system^[12] that will see improvements made in how efficiently and effectively drug-related death, NFO and other drug-related harm data is recorded, analysed and shared.

216. An ambitious objective for the team is to draw data automatically from across several internal and external systems, into a centralised ‘data lake’ to gain a richer and more holistic understanding of the context for problem drug use, including:

• toxicology results
• pathology results
• Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation
• Scottish Prison Service drugs data
• naloxone administrations.

217. This information will be shared with partners in academia and public health to provide more comprehensive and timeous public health surveillance data. Phase 1 of the pilot commenced at the beginning of May 2025, and we would encourage continuation of the pilot to build more evidence, prior to deciding on a wider rollout.

218. We learned that the DHIT has well established and supportive links with the NCA Project Housebuilder team at both tactical and strategic levels. We found clear lines of communication and intelligence sharing taking place through regular meetings and forums, including attendance at multi-agency tabletop exercises. These structured meetings help inform both the policing and wider partnership response to reducing drug harms.

219. Like the DHIT, Police Scotland’s STOP unit is a national resource within SCD. STOP unit officers are specially trained and are considered as expert witnesses by courts. They provide independent, evidence-based opinions to courts on drug identification, value, usage patterns and supply-related indicators, helping to interpret technical drug evidence for sheriffs and juries.

220. The STOP unit is represented at divisional drug trend monitoring groups across the country and produces intelligence bulletins on emerging risks and trends, which are cascaded to local divisions or placed on the Police Scotland intranet. Intelligence can be shared in real time if validated through testing at the forensic services laboratory; however, untested drugs may cause delays in dissemination.

221. The unit shares information with several partner organisations and agencies including the Scottish Prison Service, third sector organisations, local health boards and COPFS. It contributes to the quarterly RADAR reports, which have a dedicated STOP unit section, and engages in ad hoc sharing of intelligence with partners on a case-by-case basis.

222. It is clear, therefore, that the STOP unit is making a valuable contribution to reducing drug harms through its expertise in this field.

Disruption

223. In our interviews with police and key stakeholders during the scoping phase of this inspection, it was highlighted to us that drug harm reduction is often viewed within policing as ‘two sides of the same coin,’ with disruption and enforcement on one side, and prevention and intervention on the other.

224. While our intention has been to focus most of our attention on the prevention and intervention side, we cannot overlook the significant impact of disruption and enforcement activities in reducing crime and the supply of illegal drugs within communities across Scotland.

225. Scotland’s approach to organised drug crime is co-ordinated through the Serious Organised Crime Taskforce (SOCT), chaired by the Cabinet Secretary for Justice. The taskforce operates across four strategic pillars – Divert, Deter, Detect and Disrupt. Each strand is led by appointed leads and supported by multi-agency partnerships, including health and the third sector. Police Scotland’s role within the taskforce is vital, both as an operational lead in detecting and disrupting organised criminal networks, and as a strategic contributor to prevention and policy making efforts.

226. The Scottish Multi-Agency Strategic Threat Assessment produced jointly by Police Scotland and partner agencies in 2022, provides an assessment of current and emerging serious organised crime threats and identifies priority risks and vulnerabilities that require action by the SOCT. This includes drugs as a ‘threat theme.’

227. We learned that operational action is driven by the Multi-Agency Tasking and Delivery Board (MATDB). The board is chaired by ACC Organised Crime, Counter Terrorism and Intelligence, and comprises several bodies including COPFS, HMRC, Border Force, trading standards and other law enforcement partners.

228. The MATDB meets on a quarterly basis and plays a major role in delivering the Detect and Disrupt strands of the SOCT strategy; by pooling intelligence, identifying the organised crime groups or crime types posing the greatest risk, and co-ordinating responses with the appropriate partners to avoid duplication of effort.

229. Police Scotland’s SCD is the national unit responsible for tackling serious, complex and organised crime across Scotland. Providing national expertise, intelligence and operational support, it deals with crime that may be too complex, large-scale or specialised for local policing divisions to handle alone.

230. Several specialist units sit under the SCD umbrella, including the Organised Crime and Counter Terrorism Unit (OCCTU). OCCTU brings together detectives, analysts and specialist officers focused on SOC and terrorism, and plays a pivotal role in intelligence-led operations that dismantle the high-level drug distribution networks causing greatest harm to communities.

231. At divisional level, we heard that SOC teams, along with assistance from local policing colleagues, focus on disrupting lower-level drug dealing. Activities include executing search warrants, stop/search, high-visibility patrols, joint visits with partner agencies, and gathering intelligence to reduce drug-related harm at community level.

232. We found that, overall, this structure provides accountability from national to frontline level. However, we learned that resourcing issues and competing demands mean that disruption and enforcement activity can be less visible and less consistent at local level. Interviews with officers within local policing divisions further highlighted a lack of clear alignment with the SOC strategy; with the intelligence sharing between OCCTU and local policing on organised crime groups described as insufficient.

233. We heard reports of local policing officers and specialist teams involved in enforcement and disruption operations often working in silos, resulting in missed opportunities for local policing officers to contribute to the broader operational and intelligence picture. We have been advised that Police Scotland has recently restructured its Force Tasking Group into the Operational Policing Tasking Group, which is intended to deliver a more consistent policing response across communities, and better align communication across business areas. However, once this process is fully embedded, Police Scotland should demonstrate progress against the following recommendation.

234. Official statistics from the Scottish Government’s Recorded Crime in Scotland, 2024-25 report show that, between 2023-24 and 2024-25, recorded crimes of drugs supply increased by 14% (from 4,223 to 4,802 crimes). This contrasts with an overall decrease of 13% over the 10-year period up to 2024-25 (from 5,550 to 4,802 crimes).

235. Police Scotland has achieved significant results through disruption and enforcement activity, which helps reduce supply, weaken criminal infrastructure, and reassure and support communities. In 2024, drugs worth more than £50 million were seized across the country.

236. Operation Silhouette, which began in 2023, secured an estimated £6 million in drugs including: 116 kilograms of cocaine, 140 kilograms of herbal cannabis and 50 kilograms of adulterant. Thirty-six arrests were made and £1.5 million in cash was also seized. Operation Intensity, which ran from May 2023 and culminated in around 100 arrests, resulted in the seizure of more than 200 kilograms of drugs, three firearms, over £600,000 in cash and the safeguarding of 11 children identified as being at risk due to organised crime gang activities.

237. As outlined in the specialist policing section of our report, the DHIT (Operation ERSO) has a sharp focus on emerging high-harm synthetic substances including those found within ‘street benzodiazepines,’ the vast majority of which are thought to be produced within Scotland. This has resulted in a significant rise in the number of pill presses recovered by police across the country. We learned that more pill presses were recovered in the six-month period from January and June 2025 than in the preceding 6 years combined.

238. Police Scotland also targets the finances of organised crime groups with cash, property, vehicles and other assets routinely seized under the Proceeds of Crime Act (POCA). This is a key element of the SOC strategy, to ensure that criminals are disrupted and do not profit from their illegal activities. As stated in HMICS Annual Report 2024-25, £10,399,749 was recovered under POCA legislation in 2023-24.

239. Money seized from criminal activity is reinvested into community initiatives through the CashBack for Communities programme. One such project that benefits from this funding is the VOW Project in Edinburgh, which we referred to previously in this report. By redirecting the proceeds of crime into such projects, Police Scotland and partners help break cycles of offending, reduce drug-related harm and create safer, healthier communities, creating a feedback loop in which policing actions generate measurable social benefits.

240. Operation Marron was established in 2020 and is Police Scotland’s response to the threat from county lines drug supply, in which young and vulnerable people are exploited.

241. In June 2025, Police Scotland took part in the latest County Lines Intensification Week, a UK-wide initiative co-ordinated by the National Police Chiefs’ Council (NPCC). Police Scotland combined with local partner agencies including social care, housing and third sector organisations, to ensure both enforcement and safeguarding activity were delivered in tandem.

242. During the week, over 100 people were safeguarded (and nearly 2,800 more engaged),15 search warrants were executed and 42 arrests were made. Seizures included more than 300 cannabis plants with a value £280,000, herbal cannabis worth £67,000, cannabis resin valued at over £2,100, cocaine and crack cocaine with a street value of more than £85,000 and heroin worth around £45,000. Offensive weapons, including knives, an axe and a machete, were also discovered during the activity by officers.

243. These operations, activities and seizures reflect the essential role played by specialist policing teams, and the significant impact this has on tackling crime and disrupting the supply of drugs across Scotland.

Partners Intelligence Portal

244. Police Scotland developed the Partners Intelligence Portal, a secure and confidential electronic system designed to facilitate the effective sharing of critical information between partner agencies. It enables partners to securely and discreetly submit intelligence gathered during the course of their duties, while maintaining robust safeguards to protect source identity.

245. The portal serves as an intelligence gathering platform and is not intended to replace existing incident or crime reporting procedures or be used as a substitute for established referral mechanisms, particularly those concerning children or vulnerable adults. Intelligence submitted by partners is centrally managed and processed in Glasgow, before being disseminated to the relevant local policing division for further action. Partners are granted access to the portal only after completing the required training and receiving a unique password.

246. Some officers reported that the portal is often perceived as both ineffective and inefficient. Despite significant police resources being allocated to partner training, this has not resulted in proportionate outcomes. At the time of our inspection, 1,078 individuals have been trained in using the portal across the country, 400 within Highland and Islands division alone. Yet only 406 intelligence reports were submitted in the past year.

247. This aligns with comments made by partners during our interviews. For example, those involved in assertive outreach programmes in Edinburgh reported having never submitted intelligence through this medium, citing concerns about damaging client relationships and a lack of awareness of secure reporting mechanisms.

248. While some partners acknowledged useful input from local policing PIP teams, and others reported using the portal, overall, the system appears to be underused.

249. Police Scotland has begun an improvement plan to enhance training, governance, and software functionality. However, given the portal’s low usage and the continued reliance on Crimestoppers as the primary intelligence reporting channel, it should consider whether the system continues to meet organisational needs and provide value for money.

Community policing

250. Police Scotland officers working within community policing teams make a valuable contribution to broader drug harm reduction efforts.

251. The role of community officers is broad and varies across divisions, shaped by local priorities and geographical differences. For example, in some areas, school engagement is a core responsibility; in others, it is managed by officers with differing titles, roles and funding sources. We interviewed several community officers during the course of our inspection.

252. Some officers reported limited awareness of the work undertaken by their respective divisional PIP team, such as prevention and intervention initiatives undertaken with partners. They expressed the need for better communication between teams to support a more joined-up approach to harm reduction and enable more effective participation.

253. Education is widely recognised as a key tool in reducing drug-related harm, with research reinforcing the value of youth-focused initiatives. While police are involved in some of these initiatives, there is currently no standardised drug education package. Delivery is shaped by local needs and is often at the school’s request, with head teachers deciding whether or not to include this type of input in their curriculum.

254. As such, police delivery of drug-related messaging in schools is inconsistent. Uncertainty exists around roles and responsibilities, with police, local authority and third sector partners sometimes having limited awareness of what other agencies are delivering.

255. While some partners valued the opportunity to collaborate with police colleagues in areas where joint working was taking place to deliver drug education, others questioned whether police were the right resource to deliver it. Indeed, several police officers intimated that they had concerns about how well it was being received, and what impact such inputs had on the young people. They also raised concerns about the currency and relevance of the information provided to them, and the level of training provided on the subject – particularly in respect of the new and emerging drug threats referred to previously in this report.

256. Despite this variability, we found examples of effective collaborative practice:

• The Children and Young People Team partnered with ‘I Am Me Scotland’ to develop an award-winning educational package on alcohol and substance awareness. Designed for delivery from primary through to secondary school, this resource is available to all schools and accessible to school engagement and community officers via the I Am Me Scotland Learning Platform promoting a more consistent approach to substance harm education.
• Fife division youth volunteers developed an Online High campaign with partners including YouthLink Scotland, Barnardos and Fife Council. The campaign raises awareness of drug dealing via mobile devices, but feedback mechanisms for contributors require further development.

257. We also learned of prevention and intervention initiatives targeting children and young people outside of the school environment:

• Edinburgh division – Turn Your Life Around. This programme is a joint initiative by Police Scotland and Edinburgh City Council in which mentors give resilience-focused sessions to pupils and teachers by sharing their own experiences of childhood adversity.
• Greater Glasgow division – Pitchin’ In. This partnership project between Glasgow City Council and Police Scotland uses football and related activities to engage with young people, build resilience and reduce youth offending. It targets S2-S3 pupils and vulnerable groups with a combination of prevention, diversion and education.

258. While these projects and initiatives reflect effective collaboration, there is currently no formal mechanism to evaluate the overall effectiveness of police-involved preventative approaches. Similarly, there has been no evaluation of the drug harm reduction sessions given by police officers to schools across the country, consideration of which will be necessary to ensure benefits are being achieved.

People with lived and living experience

259. Police and partners consistently emphasised the importance of involving people with lived and living experience in shaping both local and national services. Their first-hand knowledge of what supports recovery, treatment and harm reduction (and what does not) offers invaluable insight. Their contributions help to develop more compassionate and practical drug policies and programmes, rooted in relationship-based engagement rather than transactional interactions.

260. By sharing their stories, they challenge stereotypes surrounding drug use and highlight the human realities behind it. Some individuals with lived experience go on to become peer workers, offering a level of support and understanding that professionals without similar backgrounds often cannot replicate. This enhances service delivery and strengthens community connections.

261. Lived experience mentors play a vital role in harm reduction efforts. Many partner organisations actively involve them in mentoring roles, where they work directly with vulnerable individuals across diverse community settings. In some areas, they also provide briefings to frontline officers, and these have received consistently positive feedback.

262. It is primarily partner organisations that engage directly with people with lived and living experience to shape services. This engagement is often led by ADPs in their respective areas, supported by health, social care and third sector organisations and services. While Police Scotland does not have a dedicated mechanism to gather the views and perspectives of people with lived and living experience of drug use, it benefits considerably from the learning gathered and shared by partners – particularly at a strategic planning level – which informs its approach to service development and delivery.

263. During onsite visits, we observed strong examples of collaborative work where lived experience voices helped shape services in partnership with police, and where individuals had transitioned into support roles. As indicated previously in this report, the VOW project in Edinburgh provides a strong example of this, where individuals who had previously used the service now provide support to others as part of the team. We were impressed by the value these individuals brought to the project – not only through their knowledge and experience, but also through their passion and commitment to helping others to transform their lives.

264. In some areas however, local policing can miss key opportunities to build trust and connect with these individuals. This was often attributed to limited collaboration with those third sector organisations that had made efforts to engage community police officers in building meaningful working relationships. Potential barriers were identified as time pressures and competing demands on frontline officers, which limited their capacity to engage meaningfully with lived experience projects and initiatives.

265. Despite these challenges, Police Scotland has demonstrated a commitment and willingness to continue to improve efforts to engage with, and listen to, the voices of those with lived and living experience.

Arrest referral process

266. Individuals in distress and/or with complex needs can, at times, find themselves in police custody. Arrest referral is the process by which police custody officers and staff refer individuals to external services for support and intervention.

267. The arrest referral process in Scotland is an intervention aimed at individuals who have been arrested and whose offending behaviour may be linked to underlying issues such as drug or alcohol use, mental health, or homelessness. The scheme is based on the principle that arrest and court appearances represent ‘crisis points’ where early intervention can be most effective in encouraging people to engage with support services and thus reduce future offending.

268. Participation in the arrest referral scheme is voluntary. The individual in police custody must agree to speak with a trained arrest referral worker. Services are typically delivered within police custody centres or court premises. A trained worker conducts an assessment of the person's needs, and this will typically cover a range of issues such as substance use, debt, housing and mental health problems.

269. Following the assessment, the worker will arrange contact with appropriate local services, such as treatment programmes provided by ADPs or third-sector organisations such as Sacro.

270. It is important to note that the arrest referral process is a pathway into services. It is not a formal diversion from prosecution scheme or a community-based disposal. There is no formal link to the due process of law; the decision to prosecute or use an alternative (such as a formal diversion from prosecution) remains with the COPFS.

271. The overall goal is to address the root causes of offending behaviour and improve health, social functioning and employment outcomes, thereby reducing re-offending. However, the scheme’s effectiveness depends on a rapid response, as the window for intervention is often brief (while the individual remains in custody).

272. Arrest referral is seen as a key component of the efforts to reduce drug harms, however, while the concept is laudable, a range of factors are limiting its reach, effectiveness and sustainability. It is reliant on custody officers and staff having the capacity to engage with individuals regarding the process (and with the third sector services providing it). Individuals also need to be motivated to engage and sustain involvement. In more populated areas, demand often exceeds capacity, and third sector partners frequently struggle to manage the volume of referrals. In addition, police officers receive limited training on drug harm reduction, so their awareness of the scheme is not a given.

273. That said, the system is significantly under-utilised. Police custody centre throughput is often around 100,000 people each year and only around 1% of these receive an arrest referral. This is despite 16% of detainees disclosing drug addiction issues, 14% reporting alcohol issues, and 43% highlighting mental health problems.

274. Furthermore, there is no feedback loop built into the system, i.e. whether the individual engaged with services post-release and, if so, whether the intervention was worthwhile. As a result, if an individual re-enters police custody, the process starts again, as very little information is shared between partners regarding outcomes.

275. In April 2025, Police Scotland and Community Justice Scotland jointly hosted a national event that brought together around 70 partners from across criminal justice, healthcare and the third sector. The aim of this was to set parameters and identify actions to redesign the arrest referral service across Scotland. The event resulted in several actions being identified for the various partners to progress, and further cross-agency engagement is planned for next year. In the interim, partners agreed to begin a redesign of the service.

[8] We have been advised that the ADP delivery framework is in the process of being redrafted and will be published in 2026.

[9] Cuckooing is the term used to describe situations where criminal gangs take over a vulnerable person’s property to store and/or deal drugs. Victims are typically intimidated and mistreated by the gangs and often struggle to reach out for help.

[10] IEP – the injecting equipment provision programme introduced across Scotland to reduce harm resulting from the use of injectable drugs. Providing injecting equipment has been proven to be effective in reducing the transmission of blood-borne viruses such as Hepatitis C and HIV.

[11] A Power BI dashboard is a single-page, interactive canvas that uses visualisations (called tiles) to provide a high-level overview of key metrics. It consolidates and monitors data from multiple sources, whether on-premises or in the Cloud, to help users quickly understand important information.

[12] An AI databelt system is an AI-enabled technical platform for comprehensive data governance, analysis, and management. It uses artificial intelligence and machine learning to automate the entire data lifecycle – including discovery, classification, and quality control – across an organisation's entire data estate, encompassing both structured and unstructured data sources.