Thematic inspection of police response to drug harm reduction

Purpose, vision and strategy

85. As previously noted, while Police Scotland is not the lead agency for drug harm reduction strategy, policy and operational delivery, it plays a significant and important role as a critical partner in reducing drug-related harms. Its contribution includes participation in strategic planning forums and working groups, providing leadership and direction to officers and staff, engaging in partnership working at national and divisional levels, supporting preventative approaches and implementing initiatives such as the rollout of naloxone across frontline services.

86. Across Scotland, 30 ADPs provide collaborative platforms through which Police Scotland is able to engage with partners locally (including the NHS, social work services and the voluntary sector) to co-ordinate and deliver local strategies that aim to reduce drug harms and support recovery within communities. We found that Police Scotland was well embedded in the majority of ADPs and played a key role in harm reduction efforts.

87. Police Scotland’s 2030 Vision and Three-year Business Plan 2024-27 set out to inform police officers and staff, as well as the general public, of the next phase of policing reform and the organisation’s strategic commitments over the next three years. It outlines four overarching pillars (safer communities; less crime; supported victims; thriving workforce) in tandem with over 130 milestones that it aims to achieve by March 2027.

88. The Chief Constable states that Police Scotland will commit to a series of strategic commitments, some of which have particular relevance to this thematic inspection. These include:

• Introducing a new community policing model focused on prevention and local problem solving.
• Strengthening partnership working and co-location to improve community access.
• Supporting a harm prevention approach across public policy.
• Enhancing data-driven decision making to reduce harm and improve safety.
• Responding to emerging drug trends and drug-related deaths using evidence-based data.
• Investing in data science and analytics to improve operational insight.
• Developing referral protocols following direct measures.
• Benchmarking performance to drive continuous improvement.

89. While some policing staff interviewed referenced the 2030 Vision, it was clear that its aims and objectives were not yet widely understood or embedded, despite the document and associated three-year plan being accessible to all staff on the Police Scotland intranet.

90. Police Scotland’s Annual Police Plan 25/26, which is directly linked to the 2030 Vision, sets out proposed policing activities for the year ahead. It outlines commitments that will be progressed and reported on throughout the year, including a proportionate response to crime and appropriate use of direct measures, enabling officers to focus on threat, harm, risk and vulnerability.

91. Several key deliverables within the plan align with the main themes of this inspection, including:

• Launch of a pilot artificial intelligence (AI)-driven drug harm data platform.
• Publication of guidance on incident response planning for drug harm clusters.
• Expansion of the AI data platform to include toxicology, NFOs, pathology and drug seizure data to enhance surveillance of emerging threats.
• Development of a prevention-focused pathway for NFOs, tailored to individual needs – in partnership with health and third sector services.
• Use of naloxone administration data to identify individuals at risk and refer them to the SAS, which can connect them to appropriate third sector interventions.

92. These plans set out ambitious commitments, underpinned by practical arrangements that, if fully implemented, will significantly support the strategic aims of drug harm reduction.

93. Police Scotland’s role in tackling drug-related crime is defined by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, with a primary focus on law enforcement. Key activities include:

• Disrupting supply chains through seizures and arrests, often in collaboration with partners such as the NCA and UK Border Force (UKBA).
• Intelligence gathering using both overt and covert methods to collect, analyse and share intelligence with relevant stakeholders in a controlled manner.

94. While enforcement remains a statutory priority, it is evident that Police Scotland has committed to achieving a balance between enforcement and a public health approach to drug harm reduction. This is being progressed through partnership arrangements and initiatives that reflect a broader commitment to harm reduction. However, these efforts could be significantly enhanced by the development and publication of a national drug harm reduction policy on policing.

95. Police Scotland’s existing drug strategy has remained in draft form for several years. Our review of the current draft found it to be consistent with the national mission and its stated aims:

“to support the reduction of drug-related deaths and associated harms by employing a trauma-informed and evidence-based partnership approach centred on prevention, enforcement, intelligence and information sharing.”

96. The draft also sets out the following key objectives:

• Minimise the impact from the illegal drugs markets on our communities by targeting suppliers through effective intelligence gathering and robust enforcement.
• Mitigate the risks experienced by people who use drugs, and work with partners to develop and improve referral pathways.
• Support partners’ efforts to engage children and young people in making positive life choices to reduce the future health impact from drugs.
• Develop innovative information sharing approaches to enhance public health surveillance data.
• Maximise opportunities to reassure communities of our collective efforts to tackle the harm caused by drugs.
• Strengthen the public health approach by supporting criminal justice diversion programmes.
• Improve our understanding of lived and living experiences, reduce the impact of stigma, treat everyone with dignity and respect, and ensure these insights inform our approach.

97. All of these stated objectives are well informed, relevant and reflect many of the issues that need to be addressed in order for Police Scotland to have a significant impact on Scotland’s drug problem. However, these aims must be formalised into a policy and guidance format that can be communicated effectively to officers and staff across relevant police divisions.

98. Drug harm and drug-related deaths are regularly discussed in strategic, tactical and operational settings and are clearly considered a key priority (particularly when concerning trends emerge) – but while Police Scotland has articulated an overarching goal of reducing drug deaths and associated harm, we found no published operational guidance to support this aim.

99. Officers we spoke with during our inspection expressed limited awareness of key national strategies, such as the aforementioned national mission and how it aligns with Police Scotland’s strategic aims and operational approach. This lack of guidance has contributed to an inconsistent understanding of what a public health approach entails, particularly among frontline staff. As a result, officers are often left to balance public health and enforcement priorities on a case-by-case basis, leading to variability in response.

100. To address such issues, Police Scotland should publish a clear policy on drug harm reduction that is accessible to officers, staff and partner agencies to support a consistent and co-ordinated approach to tackling drug-related harm across Scotland.

Policing Together

101. The Policing Together division has strategic responsibility for drug harm reduction within a broader portfolio. Objectives are primarily overseen and progressed through the Police Scotland Drug Strategy Board (DSB) and a Drug Harm Prevention Sub-Group, which reports to the board.

102. The DSB was established following the Changing Lives report and the launch of the national mission. It was designed to provide strategic governance and policy direction for Police Scotland’s prevention, intelligence and enforcement activities relating to drug and substance use. It has broad membership, which includes representatives from Police Scotland, Scottish Government, COPFS, PHS, Healthcare Improvement Scotland, SAS, Education Scotland, COSLA, SDF, Scottish Recovery Consortium, Scottish Families Affected by Alcohol & Drugs and the Scottish Institute for Policing Research.

103. At its inception, the DSB had a clearly defined vision and sub-group structure, with two key areas of focus:

• Enforcement – disrupting supply and bringing offenders to justice.
• Prevention – diverting individuals from the drugs market towards support and treatment.

104. The DSB was originally chaired by the ACC for the former Partnership, Prevention and Community Wellbeing (PPCW) division and met twice annually. Following the transition from PPCW to Policing Together, chairing responsibilities were passed to the ACC of the newly-formed division.

105. Discussions with some member organisations indicated that DSB meetings have become less frequent and less impactful, with concerns raised regarding unclear strategic direction. At the time of our inspection, the Drug Harm Prevention Sub-Group, which was intended to meet quarterly, had not convened for some time and chairing of the group had, at times, been delegated to the harm prevention superintendent.

106. The role of the Policing Together division is valued by partners, particularly due to its knowledge, experience and reach that it has across policing and, as such, consideration should be given to reinvigorating the DSB and sub groups, to support the collaboration and partnership working that was previously achieved.

107. Policing Together’s Substance Harm Prevention Team (SHPT) operates with limited resources across a broad portfolio. Despite this, team members demonstrated professionalism and commitment in the face of operational challenges. The team aims to provide national direction through various communication and engagement methods, including continuing professional development events, e-briefings, intranet messaging and guidance materials.

108. The division was central to the successful rollout of naloxone, an achievement that cannot be overstated. This required considerable commitment, planning and engagement with partners (and, of course, across policing). We provide further details on the naloxone rollout in the delivery section of this report. The division has also developed useful guidance to support officers in the use of naloxone.

109. However, feedback from local policing and specialist divisions indicated that Policing Together was not fully meeting its role in identifying and sharing learning and good practice, or promoting consistency. Collaboration with divisions was described as inconsistent, with limited co-ordination of evidence or data regarding what was working well in terms of drug harm reduction, and where the gaps may be.

110. We were told that no formal multi-divisional meetings focused specifically on drug harm reduction are held at tactical or operational levels, and inter-divisional collaboration on this topic is limited. Practitioners working at national, regional and local levels do not currently have a dedicated platform to communicate and share learning, or align approaches. This further contributes to potential inconsistency and missed opportunities for shared progress.

111. Police Scotland informed inspectors it has reinvigorated its partnership superintendent oversight group to support divisional prevention and intervention activities. However, at the time of this inspection, governance papers and terms of reference were in draft form.

112. While Policing Together had, more recently, established an internal practitioners’ forum to support the exchange of good practice, at the time of our inspection the forum had only convened once, and awareness of its existence among staff appeared limited.

113. We learned that guidance is typically shared with local policing divisions via national and local intranet sites, often through bulletins and briefings from first-line managers. Frontline officers noted that the Policing Together intranet site provides some up-to-date and informative content such as divisional contacts, information on the safer drug consumption facility and links to naloxone resources. However, other sections of the site were outdated, including information on the DSB and Drug Harm Prevention Sub-Group, as well as other key pages such as ‘Useful Documents and Links’ and ‘Ask a Question’. Some content areas had not been updated for some time, reducing the effectiveness of the site and visibility of what has been achieved. The following recommendation is therefore specific to identifying and sharing learning relevant to policing within and across divisions.

Divisional leadership

114. We examined the structures and strategies in place within local policing divisions to address drug harm and drug-related deaths. Of the 13 local policing divisions across Scotland, we undertook planned visits to three of these – Greater Glasgow, Edinburgh and Tayside – as part of our inspection activities.

115. While we did not visit other police divisions, our review of national reports and data, as well as interviews undertaken with police personnel from across divisions, has provided us with a valuable insight into how drug harm reduction is approached across the country.

116. Divisional commanders have wide-ranging responsibilities for all aspects of policing within their divisions. This includes tackling drug crime and the harm that drug use causes for individuals and communities. They work closely with counterparts in local authorities, health boards and other key partners, regularly meeting as part of a Chief Officers Group (COG) that sits in each local authority area, to provide strategic oversight across public services.

117. Partnership superintendents typically represent local policing on ADPs and associated subgroups, which report into the COG. ADPs are multi-agency, non-statutory partnerships that have strategic responsibility for coordinating action to address local issues with alcohol and drugs. They include representatives from health, local government, criminal justice services, housing, education, policing and the third sector.

118. In the absence of a published national strategy, divisional efforts are supported by effective local governance and the oversight of divisional commanders, some of whom have developed local policing strategies to reduce drug-related harm, building on existing partnerships and driven by local priorities. For example:

• Edinburgh division has created a local drug strategy in collaboration with partners. It adopts a whole system, evidence-based approach focused on prevention, harm reduction and enforcement, supported by intelligence and stakeholder engagement. The strategy is trauma-informed and shaped by people with lived experience. It aims to ensure dignity and respect in its interventions. Edinburgh has also developed a Drug Harm Prevention and Best Practice Guide, supported by a well-established partnership framework involving statutory and third sector agencies working toward a health-centric model of engagement and support.
• Greater Glasgow division has similarly developed a local strategy with partners, aimed at improving understanding of drug addiction and contributing to the wider public health response. Officers are recognised as key first responders, and the strategy enables them to influence local policing actions while incorporating partner perspectives.
• While Tayside division has not developed a local drug strategy, it follows the strategic direction on drug harm reduction provided by the Police Scotland 2030 Vision. Tayside also has a history of well-embedded and effective partnership working relationships. Partners place collaborative working at the centre of their approach, and have embraced and supported the role of third sector agencies to provide direct services to reduce drug-related harm.

119. These strategic approaches align well with national objectives and local needs. However, as stated, greater collaboration across divisions is needed to share learning on what is working well – what is not – to improve outcomes.

120. The Policing Together division has taken steps to engage with local divisions to review local strategies with a view to incorporating learning into the draft national strategy, which is a positive development.

121. Divisional commanders in the areas we visited demonstrated clear and effective leadership and oversight of drug harm reduction plans and initiatives, working in close collaboration with key partners.

Public health approach

122. The national mission is founded on a public health approach to reduce drug-related deaths and harms. Some of the key components of this include early intervention and prevention, and the provision of community support programmes, outreach services, education campaigns, treatment, rehabilitation and counselling services.

123. Historically, policing and the wider criminal justice approach have been based on enforcement through arrest, prosecution, sentencing and deterrents in the form of fines, community orders or imprisonment. A public health approach, however, assumes that certain complex social issues – such as illegal drug use – should not automatically be met with a criminal justice response.

124. We have, in this report, referred to Police Scotland’s stated aim to adopt a more public health-focused approach to reducing drug-related harms, which we consider to be in line with national policy and the position of most public bodies. Indeed, in 2021, PHS and Police Scotland announced a formal collaboration to address public health and wellbeing in communities across the country.

125. However, this introduces a tension for policing in striking an effective balance between a public health approach and the enforcement responsibilities that have been central to the policing of illicit substances for many years.

126. The primary legislation that guides police officers remains the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (the 1971 Act). Although some amendments have been made to the 1971 Act in recent years, many of the people we spoke with suggested that this now 54-year-old legislation no longer reflects the social challenges experienced in modern society.

127. In the context of the legislation, offences that contravene Section 5(2) of the 1971 Act, which relates to possession of a controlled drug where the circumstances are clearly indicative of personal use, can be dealt with by the use of direct measures^[7] by issuing a Recorded Police Warning (RPW) or Fixed Penalty Notice (FPN). This reduces the criminalisation of people who use drugs for personal reasons and supports a public health approach to drug harm reduction, freeing up police and court resources to focus on more serious offending. It can also help reduce stigma and the barriers to employment, housing and education that often follow drug convictions.

128. The use of RPWs has increased over the past few years, as outlined in the table below. This demonstrates that the policy shift towards a public health approach is being reflected in an increase in the use of alternatives to prosecution.

Figure 3: Recorded police warnings issued by fiscal year

129. In response to certain offences, including drug offences, police officers also have the option to refer an individual for consideration of diversion from prosecution by the COPFS. This is often referred to as ‘diversion’ – an alternative to prosecution that can be considered by the prosecutor in any case where the accused has an identifiable need that has, or appears to have, contributed to their offending. If considered appropriate, the prosecutor will refer the individual for voluntary participation in a programme of intervention led by either criminal justice social work services or a third sector organisation. Again, the intention is to avoid the person being drawn further into the criminal justice system and to receive the support they need to stop offending.

130. While these direct measures have been available to police officers for several years, they are not used consistently and, some would argue, are underutilised as an alternative to prosecution. The tension that exists is based on the perception of many officers engaged with as part of this inspection, that their role is to tackle the criminality associated with drug use through the use of traditional enforcement approaches. While officers will at times use direct measures, they often find themselves faced with similar offending by many of the same people on an ongoing basis. It is also clear that frontline officers rarely hear about the positive outcomes that may have been achieved for some individuals as a result of direct measures or diversion.

131. Police officers we spoke to highlighted that there was a lack of explicit guidance to help them navigate the difficult balance between applying and balancing these approaches, which can result in a lack of consistency in approach across divisions (and, indeed, the country).

132. While there is general recognition of the organisation’s overarching goal of reducing drug deaths – and to engage in a partnership approach that reduces criminalisation and provides support – how this should be achieved is not clearly articulated, nor understood across the service.

133. It is clear that messaging on this should be revised, so that the guidance given to officers sets out not only how policing fits into the public health approach but what is expected from them in their frontline response.

Policing culture

134. We outlined in the section above the challenges in achieving a balance between a public health approach to the policing of drug harm reduction, and the criminal justice enforcement response. Another challenge lies within policing culture – the strategy and planning for drug harm reduction and, importantly, how police officers engage with partner agencies, and people with lived and living experience of drug use.

135. The quality of this engagement can shape the effectiveness of partnership working, collaboration on projects, and outcomes for individuals. We examined this closely during our inspection and raised it during interviews with partner agencies and staff working in both statutory and voluntary services.

136. We found that Police Scotland has been working actively to embed drug harm reduction aims into operational culture by shifting attitudes that may, in some cases, have been based on a critical approach. Initiatives such as naloxone carriage and collaborative work with partners on the delivery of services demonstrate progress. It has also taken meaningful steps to reduce stigma through introducing trauma-informed practice, contributing to a more empathetic, public-health oriented approach.

137. The Chief Constable’s commitment to creating and delivering a plan to embed trauma-informed practice in the organisation – as part of the wider delivery plan for the justice sector and in line with the National Trauma Transformation Programme – was welcomed by inspectors.

138. However, we found that, while some officers had received trauma-related training, this had not yet been delivered widely, and therefore more needs to be done to extend the programme and embed the knowledge obtained from this into practice.

139. The overall response from the partners we spoke to was very positive. Most partner agencies and operational staff highlighted what they felt has been a significant shift in policing culture on this issue. One senior partner told us that, ‘In the past three years, police culture has markedly changed for the better and by taking a trauma-informed approach, officers are far more empathetic to the plight of drug users and their families’. It was noted that, although resourcing pressures can affect some aspects Police Scotland’s service delivery, the commitment to drug harm reduction is clear.

140. Other stakeholders reported noticeable improvements in officer attitudes and interactions with affected individuals, and highlighted that they are largely more aware of context and the experiences of those involved.

141. There is still some resistance to change, and more work is needed to fully embed a supportive, person-centred response, but the service should continue on its trajectory, challenging stigma and systemic discrimination where it exists.

[7] Direct measures provide police officers with an option to enforce the law for less serious offending in a manner that is proportionate. This can be in the form of a Recorded Police Warning (RPW) or Fixed Penalty Notice (FPN). Direct measures do not result in a record of a criminal conviction for the person receiving it.